MEDICAL CHEMISTRY Examination topics 2007

general medicine

Some names of compounds are marked by an asterisk (*). It denotes that the complete presentation of the structural formula is not required. Nevertheless, the structural formula should be recognized as well as the proper names given to the important substructures.

1        Basic chemical terms: expression of amounts of substances, molar quantities.

2        Intermolecular forces, the resulting properties of matter. Similia similibus solvuntur – typical examples, the biological significance.

3        Energetics of chemical reactions: enthalpy, entropy, and Gibbs free energy changes, their relationship. The driving force of chemical reactions.

4        High-energy compounds, structures, energetic coupling of reactions, the biological significance.

5        Reaction rate. Kinetic equations, progress curves for the 1^st order and the 0^th order reactions, catalysts.

6        Chemical equilibrium, the equilibrium constant, the relationship between K and DG°. Factors influencing equilibrium.

7        Liquid dispersions, types and fundamental properties, expressing of concentration.

8        Colligative properties of solutions, osmotic pressure, osmolarity, isotonic solutions, the osmolality of blood plasma.

9        Liquid colloidal dispersions (hydrophilic colloidal solutions - molecular and micellar). Factors stabilizing and destabilizing liquid colloidal dispersions (ionic strength, electric charge, solvation shell, surfactants).

10    Adsorption, application of polar and non-polar adsorbents, adsorption chromatography.

11    Surfactants - structural types, formation of micelles, solubilizing and emulsifying effects.

12    Weak electrolytes, the ionization constant K and percent ionization a_c. Strong electrolytes, concentration versus activity of ions, ionic strength.

13    Acids and bases, conjugate pairs, weak acids and bases, pK_A and pK_B. The pH values of aqueous solutions of strong and weak acids and bases.

14    Titration curves, differences between titration curves of strong and weak acids.

15    Hydrolysis of ions.

16    Buffer solutions, the action of buffers. The relation between the buffer composition and pH value, buffer capacity, its relation to the titration curve.

17    Buffer systems in the human body.

18    Precipitation, solubility product constant K_S, soluble and insoluble carbonates and phosphates.

19    Coordination compounds (structure, stability, examples and nomenclature), chelation.

20    Oxidation and reduction, oxidizing and reducing agents, electrode potential of the half-cell E° and E. Decisions about the direction of a redox reaction considering the DE. The relationship between DE and DG.

21    Redox pairs of biological significance (substrates, coenzymes of dehydrogenases, ascorbic acid).

22    Elements in the human body (essential macroelements and microelements).

23    English chemical nomenclature of inorganic compounds; Latin nomenclature of pharmaceuticals (oxides, hydroxides, inorganic and organic acids and salts).

24    Oxygen, composition of air, ozone, reactive oxygen species, hydrogen peroxide, water.

25    Halogens, biological significance of halides, blood plasma chloride.

26    Sulfur compounds, selenium - biological significance.

27    Nitrogen, inorganic nitrogen compounds in nature (the nitrogen cycle), biological importance.

28    Phosphorus as biogenic element (phosphates, diphosphates, phosphate esters important in metabolism).

29    Biological significance of carbon compounds (oxides, carbonates, cyanides), nutrients, carbon cycle in the nature.

30    Si, B, Al - compounds applicable in medicine (antacids, boric acid and borax).

31    Magnesium, alkaline earth metals, biological role of Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ ions, significant compounds, water containing Ca+Mg ions, insoluble calcium compounds.

32    Na, K – human intake of these minerals, biological role of Na⁺ and K⁺ ions, blood plasma concentration, significant sodium and potassium compounds.

33    Fe - biochemical significance, forms of iron occurrence in the body, some important iron compounds.

34    Toxic inorganic compounds (ozone, SO₂, nitrites, HCN, CO, As, Pb, Ba, Cd, Hg, asbestos).

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35    Constitution of organic compounds, structural isomerism (examples). Tautomerism (types, examples). Conformation of alkanes and cycloalkanes (cyclohexane, decalin, sterane).

36    Stereoisomerism (cis-trans isomerism, optical isomerism). Notation of chiral molecules configuration (Fischer projection formulas, R/S convention), enantiomers, racemates, diastereomers.

37    Important and useful arenes (benzene, toluene, styrene), biotransformation of arenes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

38    Alcohols - types, general properties, reactions, ethanol and methanol.

39    Polyhydric alcohols (glycols, glycerol, alditols, inositol), enols.

40    Phenols, general properties. Quinones (*ubiquinone, 1,4-naphthoquinone). Ethers.

41    Esters of inorganic acids, biological significance (nitrates, sulfates, phosphates, organophosphates).

42    Organic compounds of sulfur (thiols, alkyl sulfides, sulfonic acids).

43    Reactions of carbonyl compounds, biologically important aldehydes and ketones (acetone, pyridoxal, malondialdehyde, allysine, *retinal, the biochemical term "ketone bodies").

44    Carboxylic acids - general properties. The most important saturated and unsaturated aliphatic and aromatic acids (mono- and dicarboxylic), the trivial and systematic names of those acids, ibuprofen.

45    Carboxylic acid derivatives (acid anhydrides, mixed anhydrides, esters, thioesters, amides).

46    Derivatives of carbonic acid (carbamates, urea, guanidine, creatine, phosphocreatine, creatinine, arginine).

47    Aliphatic and aromatic hydroxy acids (structures and names, products of oxidation, lactones).

48    Oxo carboxylic acids of biochemical importance, the term ”ketone bodies“.

49    p-Aminobenzoic acid, the relation of PABA to folic acid. The principle of sulfonamides action.

50    Biochemically significant interconversions of some aliphatic mono- and dicarboxylic acids           (saturated acids to unsaturated and to hydroxy carboxylic and oxo carboxylic acids, transamination of amino acids).

51    Amines - general properties, basicity, reaction with aldehydes and ketones, origins of amides, oxidative deamination of amines.

52    Biogenic amines, catecholamines, phenethylamines.

53    Quaternary ammonium salts exhibiting biological significance (choline, *myorelaxants, carnitine, cationic surfactants).

54    Halogenated organic compounds (solvents, PCBs, chlorofluorocarbons, herbicides, dioxins), halogenated anesthetics. Nitro compounds.

55    Derivatives of pyrrole, pyrrolidine, indole (porphin, *porphyrins, haem, *corrin, proline, tryptophan and derivatives of it).

56    Imidazole, thiazole, and their derivatives (histidine and histamine, *biotin, *thiamine, the *skeleton                     of penicillins).

57    Derivatives of pyridine and chroman (pyridoxal phosphate, nicotinic acid, nicotinamide, *tocopherol, *coumarin).

58    Pyrimidine derivatives (bases in nucleosides, *thiamine, cytostatic analogs of pyrimidine bases).

59    Purine and its derivatives (purine bases, uric acid, allopurinol, methylxanthines).

60    Pteridine, isoalloxazine and derivatives (*biopterin, *folic acid, *riboflavin).

61    General characteristic of alkaloids. Examples of important alkaloids.

62    Toxic organic chemicals.

63    Monosaccharides - definition, chirality in monosaccharides (expressing the configuration by Fischer projection), epimers, trivial names and the configurations of the most important monosaccharides.

64    Cyclic forms of monosaccharides (anomers, Haworth projection formulas, conformation formulas of pyranoses).

65    Reactions of monosaccharides (tests for reducing properties, products of oxidation and/or reduction of monosaccharides). Alditols and acids derived from monosaccharides (general structures, group names, significance - esp. of glucuronic acid and of *neuraminic acid).

66    Formation of glycosidic bonds, glycoside types (O-, N-, and ester glycosidic bonds).

67    Amino sugars (general structure, nomenclature, N-acetylation, importance for heteropolysaccharides, *neuraminic acid and *sialic acids) and deoxy sugars (general structure, D-deoxyribose as a constituent of nucleosides).

68    Disaccharides (reducing, non-reducing, structures, properties).

69    Homopolysaccharides (starch, glycogen, cellulose, inulin, dietary fibre).

70    Heteropolysaccharides (constituents, common types of *glycosaminoglycans).

71    Nucleosides - structures, nomenclature.

72    Nucleotides - structural types (nucleoside triphosphates, cAMP, NAD⁺, FAD, coenzyme A).

73    Characterization of deoxyribonucleic acid structure (polarity of strands and bonds, B-form of the DNA double-helix, base pairing, denaturation and hybridization).

74    Main classes of RNA molecules, characteristics of the structures and of the functions (stems and loops, description of the *tRNA).

75    Fatty acids (saturated, unsaturated, essential acids). Eicosanoids.

76    Triacylglycerols, properties, structure, products of hydrolysis, fats and oils in the nutrition.

77    Glycerophospholipids, structural classes, differences in polarity, significance.

78    Sphingophospholipids, glycolipids (neutral and acidic types, components, group names).

79    Terpenes, major classes with examples (*menthane, *phytol, squalene, *carotenes).

80    Steroids, the basic structure, numbering of carbon atoms, stereochemistry; cholesterol, bile acids, significance.

81    Steroid hormones: corticosteroids (cortisol, aldosterone), gestagens, androgens, estrogens (structural differences, sites of secretion, notion about their functions).

82    Twenty standard amino acids, classification based on chemical structure and polarity of a side chain.

83    Standard amino acids, ionization and the pH value, isoelectric point.

84    Peptides, groups of peptides possessing biological activity (glutathione, examples of hormones, antibiotics, toxins).

85    Proteins, qualitative differences between peptides and proteins, levels for characterization of the structures, three main classes of proteins (globular, fibrous, and membrane proteins).

86    Primary and secondary structures of proteins (defini­tion of the terms, types of bonds).

87    Tertiary and quaternary structures of proteins (definition, stabilizing bonds, super-secondary motifs and domains, stability versus flexibility of the native protein conformations, protein denaturation).

88    Properties of proteins - solubility, ionization, salting out, denaturation, precipitation.

89    Glycoproteins – types of structures, significance, different types of glycosidic linkages to proteins in glycoproteins.

90    Hydrophilic vitamins.

91    Lipophilic vitamins.